Integrating source apportionment, health risk assessment, and biomonitoring of PTEs in household vacuum dust from a mining and industrial hot spot.
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Indoor dust is an important exposure pathway for potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in industrial hotspots such as the Meža Valley (Slovenia), impacted by centuries of Pb-Zn mining/smelting and ongoing metallurgical activities. This study is the first to examine household dust from homes of children participating in biomonitoring, providing a unique opportunity to directly assess the relationship between indoor contamination and biomonitoring outcomes. Household vacuum dust from 27 homes (Upper Meža Valley, n = 13; Lower Meža Valley, n = 14) was analysed for 12 metal(loid)s. Statistical analyses identified three dominant source-related groups: (1) Pb-Zn-Cd (legacy mining/smelting), (2) Cu-Sn (Pb recycling), and (3) Cr-Ni-Mo (steel production), indicating a mixed anthropogenic fingerprint across the valley. Health risk assessment of PTEs indicates that ingestion is the primary exposure pathway, with children facing 7-12 times higher non-carcinogenic risks than adults. Children's blood lead levels (BLLs) were generally low (75th percentile = 31 µg L⁻¹), although 6 of 27 exceeded the CDC blood lead reference value of 35 µg L⁻¹. Lead concentrations in household dust significantly predicted BLL variability (adjusted R² ≈ 0.23), highlighting indoor dust as a relevant contributor to internal lead exposure. Cumulative cancer risks remained within acceptable regulatory limits under both worst-case (100% Cr(VI), 9.03 × 10⁻⁵) and more realistic (5% Cr(VI), 1.97 × 10⁻⁵) scenarios. Persistent indoor contamination following the 2023 flooding events, despite ongoing remediation efforts, underscores the need for area-wide mitigation strategies and continued environmental and health monitoring to limit PTE transfer into indoor environments.