Occurrence, sources, and risk assessment of organophosphate flame retardants and phthalate esters in playground soils across an urban-rural gradient in central India.
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Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used flame retardants and plasticisers; however, baseline data on their occurrence in India remain limited. This study investigated 15 OPFRs and 6 PAEs in playground soils along an urban-rural gradient in Nagpur, central India, to assess occurrence, spatial distribution, and potential sources. Total concentrations of twelve OPFRs (Σ12OPFRs) ranged from 40.9 to 2,740 ng/g (mean: 339 ± 435 ng/g), while six PAEs (Σ6PAEs) varied from 35.0 to 2,550 ng/g (mean: 320 ± 394 ng/g). Σ12OPFR concentrations were significantly higher in rural transects than in urban areas (p < 0.05). OPFR profiles were dominated by alkyl OPFRs (57%), followed by aryl (32%) and chlorinated OPFRs (11%), with tris-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) as the most abundant compound (31%) and significantly enriched in rural soils (p < 0.05). PAEs were dominated by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP; 76%), followed by di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP; 15%). Principal component analysis resolved five components, identifying polymeric and consumer product sources (TDCIPP, TICIPP, TPhP, TIPrP), industrial and petrochemical inputs (TpCP), plasticizer- and agriculture-related sources (DEHP, TnBP), and diffuse atmospheric, polymeric, and traffic-related contributions (DEP, TEP, DMP, TMP). Human health risk assessment indicated a negligible risk, with maximum hazard index values of 3.49 × 10-3 for children and 8.91 × 10-4 for adults, and incremental lifetime cancer risk values ranging from 3.33 × 10-9 to 4.79 × 10-8, all of which fall within the United States Environmental Protection Agency's acceptable limits. Elevated OPFRs levels in rural areas highlight concerns related to long-range atmospheric transport and diffuse pollution hotspots locally.