Assessment of groundwater quality and health risks associated with chronic exposure to toxic elements in west-central India.
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Groundwater quality and heavy metals (HM) contamination were evaluated in western Madhya Pradesh, central India using statistical techniques, water-quality index and pollution indices. Health risks of toxic elements ingestion were assessed. Groundwater samples were collected during pre- and post-monsoon seasons, in 2022 and 2023, representative samples were collected from a variety of rocks and subsoil and analyzed by standard methods. The physicochemical variables analyzed were water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, HCO3-, CO32-, Cl-, SO42-, NO3-, F-, total hardness, Fe, Mn, Zn, As, Se, Sr and Mo. BIS and WHO drinking-water guidelines were exceeded in 17.8% and 15.5% sites, respectively, for As and Se, and 52.83% and 42.77% sites, respectively, for F- and NO3-. Statistical tools such as Pearson correlation coefficient (r), principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were used for better interpretation of water-quality data. High water-quality index and pollution index (>100), strong correlation of WQI and F- (r=0.99), HPI and As (r=0.971), HPI and Se (r=1), HPI and Zn (r=0.75) and HPI and Sr (r=0.70); implied these elements contributed to high levels of pollution. PCA identified four factors accounting for 81.2% of the total variance in the dataset. HCA classified groundwater samples into three clusters: HM-F-saline type (C1), alkaline pH-F type (C3) and intermediate type (C2) with strong hydro-lithologic linkages. Mean hazard index (HI) values exceed safety threshold (HI=1) for men, women and children in both the seasons; children are worst affected. HI is more sensitive to changes in body weight and intake rate than concentrations. Probability of exceedance (PoE) of cancer risk thresholds, 1 × 10-5, 1 × 10-4, 1 × 10-3 and 1 × 10-2 for arsenic ingestion, is higher for internal cancer than skin cancer and PoE of skin cancer risk is higher in women than men.