Geospatial assessment of groundwater quality, heavy metal contamination and human health risks in the rapidly industrializing and agriculturally dominated Shivalik Himalaya, India.
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Rapid industrialization, urban expansion and agricultural intensification have contributed substantially to groundwater contamination, posing severe environmental and community health challenges. This research evaluated groundwater quality, hydrogeochemical characteristics, heavy metal contamination and associated human health risks at 60 sampling sites in the rapidly urbanizing and industrially influenced Una district of Himachal Pradesh. Water Quality Index (WQI), Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI), Piper diagram, multivariate statistical analysis and health risk assessment were used to evaluate groundwater suitability and identify dominant hydrogeochemical processes and contamination sources. The findings indicated that the sampled groundwater was generally acidic to alkaline with several samples exceeding the permissible limits of EC, TDS, Mg2+, TH, K+, HCO3-, F-, NO3-, As, Cd, Mn, Zn and Pb. The WQI ranged from 58.03 to 218.13, indicating that nearly 75% of the sampled groundwater belonged to poor to very poor water quality categories and was unsuitable for direct consumption without appropriate treatment. The HPI values showed a variation from 0.2090 to 222.74 with an average value of 93.56 and 46.66% of the samples exceeded the critical pollution threshold limit of 100, indicating the influence of intense industrial and agricultural activities on groundwater quality. Health risk assessment showed that children were more susceptible to both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks than adults, with nitrate representing the primary non-carcinogenic risk factor and arsenic and nickel contributing most significantly to carcinogenic risks. Amongst the studied metals, As and Ni showed relatively higher Lifetime Cancer Risk (LTCR) values, suggesting potential carcinogenic health concerns. The Piper diagram indicated the predominance of the Ca2⁺-Mg2⁺-HCO₃- hydrochemical facies, suggesting that groundwater chemistry was primarily governed by carbonate weathering and rock-water interaction. Integrated multivariate statistical analysis (PCA, HCA and correlation analysis) further demonstrated that groundwater geochemistry was influenced by both geogenic and human-based activities, including agricultural runoff, industrial discharges and sewage infiltration. The findings provide valuable insights for groundwater management and risk mitigation in rapidly urbanizing and industrializing Himalayan regions.