Heavy metals in atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Dhaka, Bangladesh: Source apportionment and associated health risks.
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Air pollution in megacities is a global concern. This research aimed to identify sources of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and PM2.5-bonded heavy metals in Dhaka and assess their potential health effects. An active air sampler was used to collect PM2.5, and one-fourth of it was digested in nitric/perchloric acids to analyze heavy metals using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Results of 24-h average PM2.5 mass was calculated as 154.8 ± 46.1 μg/m3, which is three times higher than Bangladesh standard (65.0 μg/m3) and ten times higher than WHO guideline (15.0 μg/m3). Chromium was found to be nearly twice than that WHO guideline. Positive matrix factorization suggests possible sources of PM2.5-bound heavy metals due to emissions from vehicles, industries, and solid waste combustion. Pearson's correlation matrix results reveal strong correlations between Cu-Fe, and Zn-Fe (p < 0.01), while significant correlations are found between Fe-Cr, Zn-Cu, Pb-Cr, Pb-Zn, and Pb-Cd (p < 0.05) indicating a common source. Hazard quotient and hazard index data demonstrated a degrading state of PM2.5-bound heavy metals for non-carcinogenic health risk for adult group, where hazard quotient values for ingestion were higher than those for inhalation and dermal routes. Except for Cr, which was higher for both adult and children groups, lifetime cancer risk values were found to be within an allowable range, implying that PM2.5-bound heavy metals did not pose a significant risk of cancer to human health. This study emphasizes an urgent need for comprehensive air pollution management strategies to protect atmospheric environment and public health in Dhaka city.